This presentation discusses what constitutes an effective educational presentation (e.g., PowerPoint), which can then be saved as a video. In particular, based on experience and research, a “high-quality” presentation includes multimedia content, consistent with multimedia learning principles, which are described below.
The presentation is part of a longer webinar recording presented to the Groundwater Resources Association of California, May 25, 2022 about the GroundwaterU video library, which is an online library of educational videos about groundwater (groundwateru.org).
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Multimedia Learning Principles
by Andrew J.B. Cohen
The term “multimedia” refers to the combination of two or more of the following media: narration, film, video, animation, graphics, illustrations, still images, and text (Mayer, 2020). Mathematic symbology and equations have also been added here, as they are also essential to teaching environmental/groundwater science. Educational presentations and videos based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning can result in optimal learning (Mayer, 2020). Each principle is backed by research comparing different multimedia learning conditions to determine which results in better student learning experience and considering the cognitive learning process wherein humans integrate verbal and visual information with existing knowledge to create mental models and new knowledge (Paivio, 1990; Baddeley and Eysenck, 2015). A large percentage of the human brain is dedicated to visual processing. Thus, when done correctly, a multimedia approach that uses images such as video clips, animations, and illustrations alongside a verbal or textual format leads to a deeper understanding of content and the ability to make connections more easily and on a deeper level compared to the scenario where teaching includes words only.
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning rests on the theory that multimedia content is processed in the working memory (short-term memory) in the form of a visual/spatial channel and an auditory/verbal channel, and that the working memory is limited in the terms of the amount of information it can process at one time. Cognitive processing is needed to select and sort the various pieces of multimedia information. If there is too much information entering the channels, there is “cognitive overload”, in which we are unable to select and synthesize the various bites (or “chunks”) of information. This phenomenon is probably common to anyone who has attended a slide presentation at which the presenter reads the sentences that are on the screen while you are also trying to read them and look at surrounding images. In this case, you are trying to process duplicative visual and verbal information, which can result in cognitive overload to the point that neither the spoken, written words, or images are absorbed. Images or graphics that are redundant or difficult to decipher further clutter our cognitive capacity, to the point that little may be absorbed to enable consideration and deeper processing. Further, if the material presented is jarring in the way the presenter talks or acts, it is a further distraction that minimizes our ability to collect, sort, and synthesize the information. Overall, the key criteria are to optimize clarity to reduce cognitive load, and keep the learner focused and engaged.
If the multimedia information is presented in a way that does not create cognitive overload, the pertinent information can be selected, sorted, and then integrated with prior knowledge to form a “mental model”, which is a kind of internal representation of the external reality “in the mind’s eye”, that includes the relationships between its various parts. The mental model is a culmination of the integration and synthesis of learned information and experiences that constitutes “knowledge”. An initial mental model can be revised as new information and experiences are gained (and by way of freehand sketching). Figure 1 is a conceptual model of the multimedia learning process.
Figure 1 (Cohen)
Considering the theories above that are common experientially to most people, the principles for developing effective multimedia material are quite straightforward, although they are rarely implemented. Namely, that the material should be presented in a way to reduce cognitive load (that is, minimize simultaneous mental processing by the visual and auditory channels), by removing extraneous material, giving cues to the learner where to focus their attention, and presenting it in a pleasant manner, and also presenting it in a stepwise manner that enables one to build their mental model (since the mental model is based on integrating new information with existing knowledge). These broader principles can be further divided and implemented as shown in the table below. Mayer (2020) provides references to the research upon which these principles were developed. It is important to recognize that the principles are not hard and fast rules; there are many ways a multimedia presentation can be developed for effective communication. The advantages of implementing some of the principles presented by Mayer below are probably familiar to all of us, such as the principle of coherence, redundancy, and signaling, for example. There may be more flexibility regarding implementing the other principles based on the types of media being introduced, personal experience, and the level of students’ prior knowledge.
Table 1. Principles of Multimedia Learning and Corresponding Implementation Methods.
| Principle | Implementation |
| Coherence | Minimize irrelevant words, pictures, symbols, and remove music. |
| Redundancy | Do not include lengthy onscreen text while narrating and/or in combination with graphics; people learn better from graphics and narration than from a combination of graphics, narration, and printed text. [Note that continuous narration is not always the most effective method for a multimedia presentation]. |
| Signaling | Provide visual and verbal cues to guide students where to focus their attention. Signaling can take the form of labels, arrows, highlighting, or gestures, for example. |
| Spatial Contiguity | Where applicable, place descriptive words near the pictures/images they refer to. |
| Temporal Contiguity | Present corresponding words and pictures simultaneously (that is, synchronize the introduction of the words that describe elements in images). |
| Segmenting | Present material in user-paced segments; break up the video into small, replayable sections. |
| Pre-Training | Familiarize the learner with names and characteristics of the main concepts prior to explaining details. |
| Modality | Pictures and spoken words are more effective than pictures and printed words. However, pictures and printed words can be effective in some places, where the viewer can pause the video and evaluate the figures/text as a still figure (based on personal experience, this principle does not necessarily apply to animations). |
| Personalization | When narration is included, use a conversational style rather than a formal style, and speak in an appealing human voice. |
| Image | Avoid using a static image of the instructor. To do so would be contrary to the coherence principle. |
| Embodimenta | When a narrator is shown on the screen, exhibit human-like gestures. |
| Immersion | In general, avoid using 3D immersive virtual reality (example). Instead, use corresponding 2D representations. This principle may not necessarily apply to advanced learners, who may be able to comprehend 3D models once they have built good mental models and seen other 2D representations of a 3D model. |
| Generative Activitiesb | Guide learners to engage in activities that promote cognitive processing, organizing the media into a coherent structure, and integrating it with relevant prior knowledge activated from long-term memory into mental modules, carrying out things like drawing, imagining, and self-testing. |
a. However, based on personal experience, showing the narrator in full form on the screen can be distracting.
b. This principle is not unique to the multimedia learning theory; it is fundamental to knowledge building and is part of a best practice for teaching science and engineering, and it will be included in the modules.
References
Paivio, A., 1991. Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue, 45(3), 255–287.
Baddeley, A., and M. W. Eysenck, 2015. Memory, 2nd edition, Psychology Press.
Mayer, R., 2020. Multimedia Learning, 3rd edition, Cambridge University Press, New York.
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